General Electric · Risk factors

We serve customers in many countries around the world and receive a significant portion of our revenue from outside the United States. Accordingly, our operations and execution are subject to the effects of global economic trends, geopolitical risks and demand or supply shocks from events such as war or international conflict, a major terrorist attack, natural disasters or actual or threatened public health pandemics or other emergencies. Our operations and performance are also affected by local and regional economic environments, supply chain constraints and policies in the U.S. and other markets that we serve, including factors such as inflationary pressures in many markets, interest rates, economic growth rates, the availability of skilled labor, monetary policy, exchange rates, currency volatility, commodity prices and sovereign debt levels.

For example, inflationary or other pressures that cause our material or labor costs to increase can adversely affect our profitability and cash flows, particularly when we are unable to increase customer contract values or pricing to offset those pressures. Deterioration of economic conditions or outlooks, such as lower rates of investment, lower economic growth, recession or fears of recession in the U.S., China, Europe or other key markets, may adversely affect the demand for or profitability of our products and services, and the impact from developments outside the U.S. on our business performance can be significant given the extent of our global activities. Increased geopolitical tensions and outbreaks of armed conflict can also adversely impact our business, both directly or by adversely affecting economic activity globally or in particular regions or countries.

For example, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in early 2022 and related political and economic consequences, such as sanctions and other measures imposed by the European Union, the U.S. and other countries and organizations in response, have caused and may continue to cause disruption and instability in global markets, supply chains and industries that negatively impact our business, financial condition, results of operations and cash flows and pose reputational risks. More recently, there is risk of wider conflict in the Middle East that could have significant adverse impacts on the region and business activity in addition to the humanitarian and other consequences of the current conflict. Further, political changes and trends such as populism, protectionism, economic nationalism and sentiment toward multinational companies, as well as tariffs, export controls, restrictions on outbound investment or other trade barriers, sanctions, technical or local content regulations, currency controls or changes to tax or other laws and policies, have been and may continue to be disruptive and costly to our business.

These can interfere with our global operating model, supply chain, production costs, customer relationships and competitive position. Escalation of tariffs or any other specific trade tensions, including intensified decoupling between the U.S. and China, or in global trade conflict more broadly could be harmful to global economic growth or to our business in or with China or other countries. In addition, market uncertainty and volatility in various geographies may be magnified as a result of potential shifts in U.S. and foreign trade, economic and other policies following the recent U.S. elections. We also do business in emerging market jurisdictions where economic, political and legal risks are heightened and the operating environments are complex.

A substantial portion of our business is directly tied to economic conditions in the commercial aviation sector, which has historically been cyclical in nature. Capital spending and demand for aircraft engines, aviation products and aftermarket parts and services by commercial airlines, lessors, other aircraft owners or operators and airframers are influenced by a wide variety of factors, including current and predicted traffic levels, passenger and cargo load factors, aircraft fuel prices, labor costs and other issues, airline consolidation, bankruptcies and restructuring activities, competition, the retirement of older aircraft, changes in production schedules, production capabilities and capacities of airframers, regulatory oversight and changes, environmental regulations, terrorism and related security concerns, aircraft safety incidents, general economic conditions, tightening of credit in financial markets, corporate profitability, cost reduction efforts and remaining performance obligations levels.

Any of these factors could have a negative impact on new orders or on our agreements for the sale of our products and services given the long-term nature of those arrangements and could reduce our sales and profit margins. Other factors, including future terrorist actions, aviation safety concerns, public health crises or major natural disasters, could also dramatically reduce the demand for commercial air travel, which could negatively impact our sales and profit margins. Supply chain capacity shortfalls and disruptions, including for new parts and services, continue to pose challenges and risks for our business as well as other industry participants. Developments that reduce the flying public’s demand for travel could adversely affect future growth in commercial air traffic capacity and the demand for or profitability of our products and services.

Additionally, because a substantial portion of product deliveries to commercial aviation customers are scheduled for delivery in the future, changes in economic conditions can cause customers to request that orders be rescheduled or canceled. Spare parts sales and aftermarket service trends are affected by similar factors, including usage, pricing, technological improvements, regulatory changes and the retirement of older aircraft. Furthermore, because of the lengthy research and development cycle involved in bringing new engine platforms and other products to market, we cannot predict the economic conditions that will exist when any new product is ready to enter into service. We also have dependencies on our suppliers and partners for commercial engine programs to develop, manufacture and service their share of an engine, and on the major airframers that we supply to timely and successfully develop, certify and commercialize aircraft that utilize our engines as well as to successfully sell those aircraft against aircraft powered by our competitors.

A reduction in spending in the commercial aviation sector, or challenges for key industry participants, could have a significant effect on the demand for our products and services, which could have a material adverse effect on our competitive position, results of operations, financial condition or cash flows.

The segments in which we operate are highly competitive in terms of pricing, product and service quality, product development and entry into service, product durability, customer service, financing terms, the ability to respond to shifts in market demand and the ability to attract and retain skilled talent. Our long-term operating results and competitive position also depend substantially upon our ability to continue to improve or upgrade current products and services, to maintain long-term customer relationships and to increase our productivity over time as we perform on long-term service agreements, as well as our ability to develop, introduce, and market new and innovative technology, products, services and platforms, such as the RISE program suite of technologies.

In addition, the research and development cycle involved in bringing new products to market is often lengthy, it is inherently difficult to predict the economic conditions or competitive dynamics that will exist when any new product is complete, and our investments, to the extent they result in bringing a product to market, may generate weaker returns than we anticipated at the outset. Our capacity to invest in research and development efforts to advance our technologies, products and services also depends on the financial resources that we have available for such investment relative to other capital allocation priorities. Under-investment in research and development, or investment in technologies that prove to be less competitive in the future (at the expense of alternative investment opportunities not pursued), could lead to loss of sales of our products or services in the future due to the long product development cycles in our business.

The amounts that we do invest in research and development efforts may not lead to the development of new technologies or products on a timely basis or meet the needs of our customers as fully as competitive offerings, and we may face impairment charges for contract fulfillment costs that are capitalized as nonrecurring engineering costs if we determine recovery of the costs is not probable (see Note 1).

Our business is also subject to technological change and advances, such as growth in industrial automation and increased digitization of the operations, infrastructure and solutions that customers demand. In addition, our use of emerging and evolving technologies such as artificial intelligence and machine learning, which we expect to increase over time, presents business, reputational, legal and compliance risks related to data sourcing, design flaws, integration issues, security threats, privacy protections and the ability to develop sufficient protection measures. Artificial intelligence technologies have rapidly developed and our business may be adversely affected if we cannot successfully integrate these technologies into our business processes and product and service offerings in a timely, cost-effective, compliant and responsible manner.

The introduction of innovative and disruptive technologies in the segments in which we operate also poses risks in the form of new competitors, market consolidation, substitutions of existing products, services or solutions, niche players, new business models and competitors that are faster to market with new or more cost-effective products or services. Existing and new competitors offer parts or services for our installed base, and if the customers that purchase our products and services select our competitors or we otherwise fail to maintain or renew service relationships, this can erode our revenue and profitability.

Our defense business is heavily influenced by the spending and policy actions of the U.S. federal government, as well as allied governments that rely on U.S. suppliers to provide products and services important to their national defense. Changes in U.S. or other government defense spending, including as a result of potential changes in policy or budgetary positions or priorities, in connection with the recent U.S. elections or otherwise, can negatively impact the results and growth prospects of our defense business. U.S. defense spending levels are difficult to predict and may be impacted by numerous factors such as the evolving nature of the national security threat environment, U.S. national security strategy, U.S. foreign policy, the domestic political environment, macroeconomic conditions and the ability of the U.S. government to enact relevant legislation such as authorization and appropriations bills.

Changes in government priorities and funding related to the future of combat, such as greater reliance on uncrewed aircraft systems, could also adversely affect the demand for our defense products and services. In addition, government customers often may modify, curtail or terminate their contracts and subcontracts with us either at their convenience or for default based on performance. The termination of one or more of our government contracts, or the occurrence of performance delays, cost overruns (due to inflation or otherwise), product failures, shortages in materials, components or labor, or other failures to perform to customer expectations and contract requirements could negatively impact our reputation, competitive position and financial results.

In addition, our government contracts are subject to extensive procurement regulations, and new regulations or changes to existing requirements could increase our compliance costs. We are also subject to U.S. and other government inquiries and investigations, including periodic audits of our quality systems, manufacturing operations, and costs that we determine are allowable or reimbursable under government contracts. Failure to comply with provisions of our government contracts or other applicable laws and regulations could lead to civil or criminal enforcement under the U.S. False Claims Act or similar enforcement legislation, including potentially significant financial penalties, suspension or debarment against new business and reputational harm.

Our business may be impacted by climate change and governmental and industry actions taken in response, which present a variety of risks to our business and financial results. Changes in environmental and climate-related laws or regulations, including regulations on greenhouse gas emissions caps, carbon pricing and taxes, energy taxes, product fuel efficiency standards, mandatory disclosure obligations, including U.S. government procurement-related contractual climate disclosures, could increase our operational and compliance expenditures and those of our customers and suppliers, including increased energy and raw materials costs and costs associated with manufacturing changes, and could require new or additional investments in product designs and facility upgrades. In addition, we face, along with others across the aerospace and defense sector, increasing demand for transitioning to lower emission technologies, including low to no carbon products and services, the use of alternative energy sources and other sustainable aviation technologies and climate adaptation products and services.

Customers, regulators, institutional investors, the flying public and other stakeholders also continue to focus on environmental, social and governance issues, including our environmental sustainability practices and commitments with respect to our operations, products and suppliers. We anticipate that over time we will make additional investments in new technologies and capabilities and devote additional management and other resources in connection with these dynamics.

The achievement of aerospace and defense sector climate goals over the coming decades is likely to depend in part on technologies that are not yet developed, deployed or widely adopted today. For example, emissions reduction over time will likely require a combination of changes such as continued technological innovation in the fuel efficiency of engines, expanded use of low carbon fuels and the development of electric flight and hydrogen-based aviation technologies. The risk of insufficient availability, or higher cost, of low carbon fuels (such as sustainable aviation fuels or hydrogen) may compromise the pace and degree of emissions reduction. Our success in advancing climate objectives will depend in part on the actions of governments, regulators and other market participants to invest in infrastructure, create appropriate market incentives and to otherwise support the development of new technologies.

The process of developing new high-technology products and enhancing existing products to mitigate climate change impacts is often complex, costly and uncertain, and we may pursue strategies or make investments that do not prove to be commercially successful in the time frames expected or at all. Moreover, we rely on our suppliers to adapt and meet our evolving technological supply needs, and they may be unable to fully respond to our requirements in a timely manner or at all. We also face risks as our competitors respond to advancing low-emissions technologies. Our competitors may develop these in-demand technologies before we do, their new technologies may be deemed by our customers to be superior to technologies we may develop, and their technologies may otherwise gain industry acceptance in advance of or instead of our products.

In addition, as we and our competitors develop increasingly low-emissions technologies, demand for our older offerings may decrease or become nonexistent. Our reputation may also be damaged if we or others in our sector fail, or are perceived to fail, to achieve climate goals or commitments or to comply with evolving climate-related regulations. In addition, climate-related litigation and government investigations could be commenced against us, could be costly to defend and could adversely affect our business. Furthermore, our business, the businesses of our partners, suppliers, subcontractors, service providers, distributors and customers and our sector could be negatively impacted by increasing frequency and severity of acute extreme weather events caused by climate change, including hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, snow and ice storms, fires, heat waves and mud slides, and by chronic changes in weather patterns, such as temperature increases, drought and sea level rise.

These events could damage our and our suppliers’ facilities, products and other assets, and cause disruptions to our business and operations, supply chain and distribution networks, and the businesses of our customers, and could require an increase in expenditures to improve climate resiliency of our operations. Any of the foregoing could materially decrease our revenue and materially increase our costs and expenses.

With respect to acquisitions and business integrations, dispositions, separations, joint ventures and other inorganic investments, we may not complete announced transactions on a timely basis or at all, including as a result of regulatory approvals, achieve expected returns, financial or operational synergies or other benefits on a timely basis or at all as a result of changes in strategy, integration challenges, investment risk or other factors. Acquisitions may require us to use more financial, operational and other resources on integration and implementation activities than we expect, and we may not be able to successfully integrate the businesses or assets acquired into our existing operations or realize the expected economic or operational benefits of the acquisition.

Further, acquired businesses may present risks and unforeseen difficulties that can arise in integrating operations and systems and in retaining and assimilating employees. Declines in the value of equity interests or other assets that we sell can diminish the cash proceeds that we realize, and our ability and timing to sell can depend on market conditions, the liquidity of the relevant asset or other restrictions. We may dispose of businesses or assets at a price or on terms that are less favorable than we had anticipated, or with purchase price adjustments or the exclusion of assets or liabilities that must be divested, managed or run off separately. Dispositions or other business separations also often involve continued financial or operational involvement in the divested business, such as through continuing equity ownership, retained assets or liabilities, transition services agreements, commercial agreements, guarantees, indemnities or other current or contingent financial or operational obligations or liabilities.

Under these arrangements, performance by the divested businesses or other conditions outside our control could materially affect our future financial results. Evaluating or executing on all types of potential or planned portfolio transactions can divert senior management time and resources from other pursuits. We also participate in a number of joint ventures with other companies or government enterprises in various markets around the world, including joint ventures where we have a lesser or minimal degree of control over the business operations, which expose us to additional operational, financial, reputational, legal or compliance risks. Furthermore, as our and our joint venture partners’ strategies change or general conditions involving a joint venture and its intended purposes evolve, we may not be able to exit or wind down any unfavorable joint ventures on acceptable terms, without financial or other concessions to our joint venture partners or at all.

The GE HealthCare and GE Vernova separations were effected through spin-offs that were intended to be tax-free for the Company and its shareholders for U.S. federal income tax purposes. If either of the GE HealthCare or GE Vernova separation transactions were ultimately determined to be taxable, the Company would incur a significant tax liability, and the distributions to the Company’s shareholders would become taxable and the new independent companies might incur income tax liabilities. In addition, the Company may not achieve the anticipated benefits of the GE Vernova and GE HealthCare separations and may be exposed to additional risks, including potential liabilities pursuant to agreements entered into in connection with the spin-offs, the credit support provided to GE Vernova (see the Other Items – GE Vernova Parent Company Guarantees section within MD&A) and the various restructuring and business transformation actions that have brought changes across the Company’s organizational structure, senior leadership, functional alignment, outsourcing and other areas. Any of these risks could result in a material adverse effect on the Company’s business, reputation, results of operations, financial condition and cash flows.

Our patents and other intellectual property may not prevent others from independently developing or selling products and services comparable or competitive to ours, and there can be no assurance that the resources invested by us to protect our intellectual property will be sufficient to adequately deter infringement, misappropriation or other improper use of our technology, particularly in certain markets outside the U.S. where strong intellectual property protection mechanisms are lacking. Trademark licenses of the GE brand in connection with dispositions, including in connection with the separations of GE HealthCare and GE Vernova into independent companies, may negatively impact the overall value of the brand in the future. We also face potential competition in countries where we have not invested in a patent portfolio.

If we are not able to protect our intellectual property, the value of our brand and other intangible assets may be diminished, and our business may be adversely affected. We also face attempts, both internally from insider threats and externally from cyber-attacks, to gain unauthorized access to our IT systems or products for the purpose of improperly acquiring our trade secrets or confidential business information. In addition, we have observed an increase in the use of social engineering tactics by bad actors attempting to access systems storing certain of our trade secrets and other confidential business information. The theft or unauthorized use or publication of our trade secrets or other confidential business information as a result of such incidents could adversely affect our competitive position and the value of certain of our investments in research and development.

In addition, we are subject to the enforcement of patents and other apparent intellectual property rights by third parties, including aggressive and opportunistic enforcement claims by non-practicing entities. Regardless of their merit, responding to such claims can be expensive and time-consuming. We also may be found to infringe third-party rights, which could result in us being enjoined from offering some of our products and services or bringing to market new products and services, and require us to pay substantial damages. The value of, or our ability to use, our intellectual property may also be negatively impacted by dependencies on third parties, such as our ability to obtain or renew on reasonable terms, or at all, licenses that we need in the future, or our ability to secure or retain ownership or rights to use data in certain software analytics or services offerings.

OPERATIONAL RISKS. Operational risk relates to risks arising from systems, processes, people and external events that affect the operation of our business. It includes risks related to product safety, quality and performance; supply chain and business disruption; operational execution across product and service life cycles; and information management and data protection and security, including cybersecurity.

We produce highly sophisticated products, including commercial and defense aircraft engines, integrated engine components and electric power and aircraft systems, and we provide specialized services for products that incorporate or use complex or leading-edge technology, including both hardware and software. Accordingly, the adverse impact of product quality issues can be significant. Actual or perceived design, production, performance, durability or other quality issues related to new product introductions or existing product lines can result in reputational harm to our business, in addition to the potential need for increased inspections and shop visits, and direct warranty, maintenance and other costs that may arise. In addition, a catastrophic product failure or similar event resulting in injuries or death, a fleet grounding or similar systemic consequences could have a material adverse effect on our business, reputation, financial position, cash flows and results of operations.

Even when there have not been significant or widespread product failures in the field, many of our products and services must function under demanding operating conditions and meet exacting and evolving certification, performance, reliability and durability standards that we, our customers or regulators adopt. Developing and maintaining products that meet or exceed these standards can be costly and technologically challenging, and may also involve extensive coordination of suppliers and highly skilled labor from thousands of workers; a failure to deliver products and services that meet these standards could have significant adverse financial, competitive or reputational effects. Technical, mechanical and other failures occur from time to time, whether as a result of human factors, manufacturing or design defects, or operational process or production issues attributable to us, our customers, suppliers, third-party integrators or others.

In some circumstances we have also incurred, and in the future we may incur, increased costs, delayed payments or lost equipment or services revenue in connection with a significant issue with a third-party product with which our products are integrated, or if parts or other components that we incorporate in our products have defects or other quality issues. For example, a prolonged aircraft grounding, certification or production delays or other adverse developments with aircraft powered by our engines can pose risks to our business. There can be no assurance that the operational processes around sourcing, product design, manufacture, performance and servicing that we or our customers or other third parties have designed to meet rigorous regulatory and quality standards will be sufficient to prevent us or our customers or other third parties from experiencing operational process or product failures and other problems, including through human factors, manufacturing or design defects, process or other failures of contractors or third-party suppliers, cyber-attacks or other intentional acts, software vulnerabilities or malicious software, that could result in potential product, safety, quality, regulatory or environmental risks.

Our reliance on third-party suppliers, partners, contract manufacturers and service providers and on commodity markets to secure raw materials, parts, components and sub-systems used in our products exposes us to volatility in the prices and availability of these materials, parts, components, systems and services. As our supply chains are complex and extend into many different countries and regions around the world, we are also subject to global economic and geopolitical dynamics and risks associated with exporting components manufactured in particular countries for incorporation into finished products completed in other countries. We operate in a supply-constrained environment and are facing, and may continue to face, supply-chain shortages, inflationary pressures, shortages of skilled labor, transportation and logistics challenges and manufacturing disruptions that impact our revenue, profitability and timeliness in fulfilling customer orders.

We anticipate supply chain pressures across our business will continue to challenge and adversely affect our operations and financial performance for some period of time. For example, successfully executing the significant production and delivery ramp efforts in connection with the growth of newer engine platforms such as the LEAP depends in part on our suppliers having access to the materials, skilled labor and production capacity they require and making timely deliveries to us, as well as meeting the required safety, quality and performance standards for commercial and military aviation. In addition, some of our suppliers or their sub-suppliers are limited- or sole-source suppliers, and our ability to meet our obligations to customers depends on the performance, product quality, continued product availability and stability of such suppliers.

We also have dependencies on certain key internal manufacturing or other facilities. Disruptions in deliveries, capacity constraints, production disruptions up- or down-stream, price increases, or decreased availability of raw materials or commodities, including as a result of war, natural disasters (including the effects of climate change such as sea level rise, drought, flooding, wildfires and more intense weather events), actual or threatened public health pandemics or emergencies, governmental, legislative or regulatory actions, or other business continuity events, adversely affect our operations and, depending on the length and severity of the disruption, can limit our ability to meet our commitments to customers or significantly impact our operating profit or cash flows.

Further, a prolonged disruption at a significant supplier or discontinuation of an important material, part, component or system can require us to identify and qualify a new supplier or develop other manufacturing or production alternatives; this can require substantial time to implement, particularly if it involves new regulatory certifications, and can lead to costs or delays that adversely impact our production timelines, fulfillment of customer contracts, revenue, profitability, cash flows and reputation. Quality, capability, compliance and sourcing issues experienced by third-party providers can also adversely affect our costs, profitability and the quality and effectiveness of our products and services and result in liability and reputational harm. The harm to us could be significant if, for example, a quality issue at a supplier or with components that we integrate into our products results in a widespread quality issue across one of our product lines or our installed base of equipment.

In addition, our suppliers may experience cyber-related attacks, which could negatively impact their ability to meet their delivery obligations to us and in turn have an adverse effect on our ability to meet our commitments to customers.

Our financial results depend on the successful execution of our business plans and commercial arrangements across all steps of the product and service life cycle. We seek to improve our operations and execution on an ongoing basis, and our ability to make the desired improvements is an important factor in our profitability and overall financial performance. For example, we often enter into long-term service agreements in connection with significant contracts for the sale of our products and services (see Note 1). In connection with these agreements, we must accurately estimate our costs associated with delivering the products, product durability and reliability, and the provision of services over time in order to be competitive and profitable and to generate acceptable returns on our investments.

A failure to appropriately estimate, plan for or execute our business plans may adversely affect our delivery of products and services in line with our projected financial performance or cost estimates, and ultimately may result in excess costs, build-up of inventory that becomes obsolete, lower profit margins and an erosion of our competitive position. We also face operational risks in connection with launching or ramping newer product platforms, such as the LEAP or GE9X engines. Particularly with newer product platforms and technologies, we seek to reduce the costs of these products over time through experience and other measures, including the introduction of new designs, technologies, manufacturing methods and suppliers.

Risks related to engineering, our supply chain, the availability of skilled labor, product quality, product durability, the cost of producing complex materials or components, regulatory approvals, timely delivery or other aspects of operational execution can adversely affect our ability to achieve those cost reductions and to meet contract obligations and customers’ expectations, as well as our business plan objectives. A strike or other labor disruption could also adversely affect our production, delivery, financial performance and reputation, and we are due in 2025 to renegotiate expiring labor union contracts. In addition, many of our customer contracts are complex and contain provisions that could cause us to incur penalties, be liable for liquidated or actual damages and incur unanticipated expenses with respect to the timely delivery, functionality, deployment, operation and durability of our products, solutions and services.

Operational failures that result in product safety or quality problems or potential environmental, health or other risks could have a material adverse effect on our business, reputation, financial position, cash flows and results of operations.

Increased global cybersecurity requirements, vulnerabilities, threats, computer viruses and more sophisticated and targeted cyber-related attacks such as ransomware, as well as cybersecurity failures resulting from human or technological errors, pose risk to the security of our and our customers', partners', suppliers' and third-party service providers' infrastructure, products, systems and networks and the confidentiality, availability and integrity of GE Aerospace and customers' data, as well as associated financial and reputational risks. The perpetrators of such attacks include sophisticated malicious actors, including states and state-affiliated actors targeting critical infrastructure. The risks in this area continue to grow, and we expect cyberattacks will continue to accelerate on a global basis in frequency and impact as threat actors increasingly use artificial intelligence and other techniques to circumvent security controls, evade detection and remove forensic evidence.

As a result, there can be no assurance that our cybersecurity risk management processes, including our policies and controls, will be effective in promptly or effectively detecting, containing or remediating cybersecurity attacks, which may result in material harm to our systems, information or business.

We have experienced, and expect to continue to experience, cyberattacks of varying degrees of sophistication and various cybersecurity incidents, such as distributed denial of service attacks and phishing attacks. It may take considerable time for us to investigate and evaluate the full impact of incidents, particularly for sophisticated attacks. This may inhibit our ability to provide prompt, full and reliable information about the incident to our customers, suppliers, regulators and the public. A significant cyber-related attack against us, a key third-party system or a network that we use, or in our sector, such as an attack on commercial aircraft (even if such an attack does not involve our products, services or systems), could adversely affect our business.

The large number of suppliers that we work with requires significant effort for the initial and ongoing verification of the effective implementation of cybersecurity requirements by suppliers. The increasing degree of interconnectedness that we have with our partners, suppliers and customers also poses a risk to the security of our network as well as the larger ecosystem in which we operate. Our risk mitigation efforts may fail to prevent, detect and limit the impact of cyber-related attacks, and we remain vulnerable to known and unknown cybersecurity threats.

The continued adoption of new technologies across our business and by our suppliers, including emerging technologies, system migrations and network transitions, also increases our exposure to cybersecurity threats. Any unknown vulnerability or compromise in our or a third-party product (for example, open source software) exposes our systems, networks, software or connected products to malicious actors that seek to misuse our products, steal intellectual property, misappropriate sensitive, confidential or personal data, or create safety risks or unavailability of equipment. In addition, given the nature of complex systems, software and services like ours, and the scanning tools that we deploy in relation to our networks, infrastructure and products, we regularly identify and track security vulnerabilities.

We are not always able to comprehensively apply patches or mitigating measures or ensure that patches are applied before vulnerabilities can be exploited. We also have access to sensitive, classified, confidential or personal data or information that is subject to privacy and security laws, regulations or customer-imposed controls. We are vulnerable to security breaches, theft, misplaced, lost or corrupted data, programming errors and misconfigurations, employee errors (including as a result of social engineering/phishing) and/or malfeasance (including misappropriation by insiders or departing employees) that may compromise sensitive, classified, confidential or personal data or information, improper use of our systems, software solutions or networks, unauthorized access, use, disclosure, modification or destruction of or denial of access to information, defective products, production downtimes and operational disruptions.

In addition, a cybersecurity incident that impacts our partners, suppliers or customers could compromise our systems and impact our intellectual property, personal data or other confidential information, or result in production downtimes and operational disruptions that could cause us to breach our commitments to customers. Any security vulnerability or malicious software in a product used by a partner or supplier to deliver a service or embedded in a product that is later integrated into a GE Aerospace product could lead to a vulnerability in the security of GE Aerospace’s product or, if used internally in our network environment, to a compromise of the GE Aerospace network, which may lead to the loss of information or operational disruptions.

Cybersecurity-related and data privacy and protection laws and regulatory regimes are evolving, can vary significantly by country and present increasing compliance challenges, and we from time to time receive, and in the future will likely receive, regulatory inquiries about specific incidents or aspects of our cybersecurity framework; these dynamics increase our costs, affect our competitiveness and can expose us to fines or other penalties and reputational risks. In addition, cybersecurity incidents can result in other negative consequences, regardless of whether the direct effects of an incident are significant, including damage to our reputation or competitiveness, restoration and remediation costs, increased digital infrastructure or related costs that are not covered by insurance, and costs or fines arising from litigation or regulatory investigations or actions.

While we carry cyber insurance, we cannot be certain that our coverage will be adequate for liabilities actually incurred, that insurance will continue to be available to us on economically reasonable terms, or at all, or that any insurer will not deny coverage as to any future claim.

FINANCIAL RISKS. Financial risk relates to our ability to meet financial goals and obligations and mitigate exposure to broad market risks. In addition to the risks to financial performance that most of the items described throughout our risk factors pose, financial risks include credit risk; funding and liquidity risks; and volatility in foreign currency exchange rates, interest rates and commodity prices. We also face financial risks associated with our run-off insurance and banking operations. Credit risk is the risk of financial loss arising from a customer or counterparty failure to meet its contractual obligations. Liquidity risk refers to the potential inability to meet contractual or contingent financial obligations (whether on- or off-balance sheet) as they arise, and could potentially impact our financial condition, cash flow or overall safety and soundness.

Our business and operating results have been, and will continue to be, affected by worldwide economic conditions, including conditions in the aerospace and defense sector. Activity in our sector is also particularly influenced by the actions of a small group of large original equipment manufacturers, as well as large airlines in various geographies. We have significant business with, and credit exposure to, some of our largest customers and accordingly our performance can be adversely affected by challenges that individual customers or the industry faces related to factors such as competition, regulatory oversight and certifications, the need for cost reduction, financial stability and soundness, supply chain or labor shortages or disruptions, the cost of jet fuel, the availability of aircraft leasing and financing alternatives, interest rates, the retirement of older aircraft and other dynamics affecting the original equipment and aftermarket service markets, or by a significant disruption of air travel demand.

Further, changes in the relative value of various national currencies (especially the reduction in the valuation of a home currency against the value of currencies used to purchase and maintain aircraft and aircraft engines) may impact our customers and other industry participants. Existing or potential customers may delay or cancel plans to purchase our products and services and may not be able to fulfill their obligations to us in a timely fashion or at all as a result of business deterioration, cash flow shortages or difficulty obtaining funding or due to macroeconomic conditions, geopolitical disruptions, changes in law or other challenges that they face. The airline industry has historically been highly cyclical, and sustained economic growth and political stability in both developed and emerging markets are principal factors underlying long-term air traffic growth; the current macroeconomic and geopolitical environment and the potential for recession or armed conflict pose risks to the rate of that growth.

A potential future disruption in connection with a terrorist incident, war, cyberattack, actual or threatened public health pandemic or emergency or recessionary economic environment that results in the loss of business and leisure traffic could also adversely affect our customers, their ability to fulfill their obligations to us in a timely fashion or at all, demand for our products and services and the viability of a customer’s business. (See also Risk Factors - Commercial aviation sector.) In addition, our customers include governmental entities within and outside the U.S., including the U.S. federal government. Sustained and increased funding from government customers supports research, new product development, production and aftermarket business for our defense business, and a variety of domestic and international political, macroeconomic and geopolitical factors, including recession, can materially affect our customers’ ability to secure budget support and fund these activities year after year.

We also at times face greater challenges collecting on receivables with customers that are sovereign governments or located in emerging markets. If there is significant deterioration in the global economy, in our sector, in financial markets or with particular significant counterparties, our results of operations, financial position and cash flows could be materially adversely affected.

While in recent years we have greatly reduced the scope of GE's former financial services operations, we continue to retain significant exposure to legacy insurance and other financial services operations that will run off over a long period of time and, in the event of future adverse developments, could cause funding or liquidity stress. For example, it is possible that results of our statutory testing of insurance reserves in future years will require additional capital contributions to our insurance subsidiaries, even after the capital contribution made in the first quarter of 2024 that completed the contributions in connection with the statutory permitted practice approved in 2018 by the Kansas Insurance Department (KID).

Our statutory testing of insurance reserves is subject to a variety of assumptions, including assumptions about the discount rate (which is sensitive to changes in market interest rates), morbidity, mortality and future long-term care premium increases. Future adverse changes to these assumptions (to the extent not offset by any favorable changes to these assumptions) could result in an increase to future policy benefit reserves and, potentially, to the amount of capital we are required to contribute to our insurance subsidiaries (as discussed in the Other Items - Insurance section within the MD&A). In addition, we have exposure to various financial counterparties that pose credit and other risks in the event of insolvency or other default.

For example, a portion of our run-off insurance operations’ assets are held in trust accounts associated with reinsurance contracts. For our UFLIC subsidiary, such trust assets are currently held in trusts for the benefit of insurance company subsidiaries of Genworth, which has stated in the past that it will not bolster the capital position of its insurance subsidiaries. Solvency or other concerns about Genworth or its insurance company subsidiaries may cause those subsidiaries or their regulators to take or attempt to take actions that could adversely affect UFLIC, including control over assets in the relevant trusts. It is also possible that additional contingent liabilities and loss estimates for Bank BPH, in connection with the ongoing litigation in Poland related to its portfolio of residential mortgage loans denominated in or indexed to foreign currencies (see Note 24), will need to be recognized (or loss estimates may increase in the future) and will require additional capital contributions.

Regulatory requirements and agreements with respect to our run-off insurance operations and Bank BPH require us to maintain adequate levels of capital and could require additional infusion of capital if the required levels are not maintained. Though we may consider strategic options to accelerate the further reduction in the size of these remaining financial services operations, such options may not be viable or attractive because of the associated cash payments, financial charges or other adverse effects. There can be no assurance that future liabilities, losses or impairments to the carrying value of assets within our financial services operations would not materially and adversely affect our business, financial position, cash flows or results of operations.

We intend to maintain a sustainable investment-grade long-term credit rating, but there can be no assurance that we will not face future credit rating downgrades as a result of factors such as a change in business strategy or performance, or changes in rating application or methodology. Future downgrades could adversely affect our cost of funds, liquidity and competitive position, and external conditions in the financial and credit markets may limit our availability to refinance our debt at particular times or on commercially reasonable terms. In addition, if we are unable to generate cash flows in accordance with our plans or face unforeseen needs for capital, we may adopt changes to our capital allocation plans (such as plans related to the timing or amounts of investments or capital expenditures, share repurchases or dividends) or take other actions.

Further, our pension and other post-retirement benefit obligations are exposed to economic factors, such as changes in interest rates, investment performance of plan assets, and health care costs, which could adversely impact our leverage and liquidity. For additional discussion about our credit ratings, financial conditions and related considerations, refer to the Capital Resources and Liquidity section within MD&A. For discussion regarding how our financial statements have been and can be affected by our pension and healthcare benefit obligations, see Note 13.

LEGAL AND COMPLIANCE RISKS. Legal and compliance risk relates to risks arising from the government and regulatory environment, legal proceedings and compliance with integrity policies and procedures, including matters relating to financial reporting and the environment, health and safety. Government and regulatory risk includes the risk that government or regulatory actions will impose additional cost on us or require us to make adverse changes to our business models or practices.

Our business is subject to regulation under a wide variety of U.S. federal and state and non-U.S. laws, regulations and policies that require ongoing compliance efforts. There can be no assurance that laws, regulations and policies will not be changed or interpreted or enforced in ways that will require us to modify our business models and objectives or affect our returns on investments by restricting existing activities and products, subjecting them to escalating costs or prohibiting them outright. In particular, recent trends globally toward increased protectionism, import and export controls, required licenses or authorizations to engage in business with certain countries or entities, the use of tariffs, restrictions on outbound investment and other trade barriers can result in actions by governments around the world that have been and may continue to be disruptive and costly to our business, and can interfere with our global operating model and weaken our competitive position.

In addition, changes in environmental and climate change laws, regulations or policies (including emissions pricing and taxes, emissions standards or sustainable finance, among others) affecting the aerospace and defense sector could lead to additional costs or compliance requirements, a need for additional investment in product designs, require carbon offset investments or otherwise negatively impact our business or competitive position. Other legislative and regulatory areas of significance for our business that U.S. and non-U.S. governments have focused and continue to focus on include cybersecurity, data privacy and sovereignty, artificial intelligence, anti-corruption, competition law, public procurement law, compliance with complex trade controls and economic sanctions laws, technical regulations or local content requirements that could result in market access criteria that our products cannot or do not meet, restrictions related to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), foreign exchange intervention in response to currency volatility and currency controls that could restrict the movement of liquidity from particular jurisdictions.

Potential changes to tax laws, including changes to taxation of global income, may have an effect on our subsidiaries’ structure, operations, sales, liquidity, cash flows, capital requirements, effective tax rate and performance. For example, legislative or regulatory measures by U.S. federal, state or non-U.S. governments, or rules, interpretations or audits under new or existing tax laws such as global minimum taxes or other changes to the treatment of global income, could increase our cash tax costs and effective tax rate. Regulation or government scrutiny may impact the requirements for marketing our products and slow our ability to introduce new products, resulting in an adverse impact on our business. Furthermore, we make sales to U.S. and non-U.S. governments and other public sector customers, and we participate in various governmental financing programs, that require us to comply with strict governmental regulations.

As a U.S. government contractor, we are also subject to risks relating to U.S. government audits and investigations that in the past have led, and in the future may lead, to cash withholds, fines, damages or other penalties under civil or criminal laws. Inability to comply with applicable regulations could adversely affect our status with government customers or our ability to participate in projects and could have collateral consequences such as suspension or debarment. Suspension or debarment, depending on the entity involved and length of time, can limit our ability to bid for new U.S. government contracts or business with other government-related customers, and this could adversely affect our results of operations, financial position and cash flows.

We are subject to a variety of legal proceedings, commercial disputes, legal compliance risks and environmental, health and safety compliance risks in virtually every part of the world. We, our representatives and our industry are subject to continuing scrutiny by regulators, other governmental authorities and private sector entities or individuals in the U.S., the European Union and other jurisdictions, which have led or may, in certain circumstances, lead to enforcement actions, adverse changes to our business practices, fines and penalties, required remedial actions such as contaminated site clean-up or other environmental claims, or the assertion of private litigation claims and damages that could be material. For example, we remain subject to shareholder lawsuits related to the Company’s financial performance, accounting and disclosure practices and related legacy matters from several years ago.

These types of proceedings involving claims about past financial performance and reporting, as well as any future claims that may arise about past or current misconduct, even if unfounded, may have a significant impact on our reputation and how we are viewed by investors, customers and others. We also from time to time are involved in commercial discussions, disputes or proceedings in which, given the nature of our business that often involves large equipment and service orders and long-term commercial relationships, the claims asserted can be for significant amounts. The estimation of legal reserves or possible losses involves significant judgment and may not reflect the full range of uncertainties and unpredictable outcomes inherent in litigation, disputes and investigations, and the actual losses arising from particular matters may exceed our current estimates and adversely affect our financial results.

The risk management and compliance programs we have adopted and related actions that we take may not fully mitigate legal and compliance risks that we face, particularly in light of the global and diverse nature of our operations and the current enforcement environments in many jurisdictions. For example, when we investigate potential noncompliance under U.S. and non-U.S. law involving our employees, partners or third parties we work with, in some circumstances we make self-disclosures about our findings to the relevant authorities who may pursue or decline to pursue enforcement proceedings against us in connection with those matters. We are also subject to material trailing legal liabilities from businesses that we have exited or are inactive.

We also expect that additional legal proceedings and other contingencies will arise from time to time. Moreover, we sell products and services in growth markets where claims arising from alleged violations of law, product failures or other incidents involving our products and services are adjudicated within legal systems that are less developed and less reliable than those of the U.S. or other more developed markets, and this can create additional uncertainty about the outcome of proceedings before courts or other governmental bodies in those markets. See Note 24 for further information about legal proceedings and other loss contingencies.

LEGAL PROCEEDINGS. Refer to Legal Matters and Environmental, Health and Safety Matters in Note 24 to the consolidated financial statements for further information relating to our legal matters.